Table of Contents

Foreword i
Preface v
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 The rise of space science 2
1.2 Actors in space science activities 13
1.3 The need for international cooperation 18
1.4 Organization of this book 22
Chapter 2 Fundamental Elements in Space Science Programs 26
2.1 Funding 27
2.2 Bottom-up selection 29
2.3 Scientific excellence 33
2.4 Challenging scientific instruments 37
2.5 System engineering 40
2.6 Maximization of the science output 43
2.7 Data policies 45
Chapter 3 Models for International Cooperation in Space Science 49
3.1 Data sharing 50
3.2 Observing time 52
3.3 Missions of opportunity 54
3.4 Cooperation between programs 56
3.5 Coordination in the long-term strategic plans 59
3.6 Provision of instruments 61
3.7 Joint development of missions 64
Chapter 4 Key Elements for a Successful Cooperation 69
4.1 Science community 70
4.2 Mutual trust 74
4.3 Leadership 78
4.4 Management 81
4.5 Cultural differences 85
4.6 Legal framework 87
Chapter 5 International Organizations for Space Science 94
5.1 COSPAR 95
5.2 IAA 102
5.3 IAF 106
5.4 ISSI 108
5.5 ISSI-BJ 112
5.6 UNOOSA 113
Chapter 6 Examples of Space Science Collaboration Projects 116
6.1 The Halley Comet encounter 117
6.2 HST 121
6.3 Cluster and Double Star 125
6.4 INTEGRAL 128
6.5 Cassini-Huygens 131
6.6 SVOM 134
6.7 SMILE137
Chapter 7 The Future of International Cooperation in Space Science 140
7.1 Important science frontiers need joint efforts141
7.2 Commercial space as a new player 142
7.3 Constellations of small satellites for space science144
7.4 Commercial services for space science147
7.5 Cooperation and competition 149
7.6 Responsibility of science communities150
References 153

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Chapter 1 Introduction
Scientific research is based on experiments and observations, the competition of ideas, peer review, and the sharing of data and results. That is to say, knowledge must be independent of individuals, non-isolated, unbiased, and accessible to worldwide discussion and verification. Therefore, tools to carry out scientific research and data sharing are fundamental for the advancement of knowledge. Space science includes a variety of research domains. Nowadays, the term refers in general to all areas of science studying space environment or benefiting from experiments and observations carried out in space. This definition of space science has, of course, evolved over the last decades, from the measurement of the environmental conditions of our planet beyond the upper atmosphere to the test and understanding of the laws of physics that underpin the behaviour of the universe, the study of its components and their behaviour. Indeed, space offers access to places for in-situ measurements, like the environment of the Sun and the Earth, planets, comets, or asteroids, as well as the possibility of bringing samples back. Moreover, the stable space conditions of space allow for carrying out long, undisturbed, high-precision, and scientific experiments. However, a key advantage leading to the advance of space science is given by the possibility to perform unperturbed observations of distant objects, free from the effects of the Earth’s atmosphere, across the whole electromagnetic spectrum.
1.1 The rise of space science In October 1957, humankind entered the so-called Space Age with the launch of Sputnik-1 as shown in Figure 1.1, the first artificial satellite. Spacecraft in orbit allowed humans to explore new regions beyond the atmosphere, and offered new windows to observe the universe without the limitations imposed by it. At that time, little was known about the upper atmosphere, the space environment beyond the ionosphere, or Chapter 1 Introduction 3 how cosmic particles penetrate the atmosphere to reach the Earth’s surface. In January 1958, Explorer-1, the first satellite of the United States, was launched to explore the radiation environment of geospace as shown in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3. A new research discipline for the study of outer space, known as space research, thus emerged. Moreover, as early as 1958, at the initiative of the United States and the Soviet Union, the International Council for Science Unions (ICSU) formed an ad-hoc committee to deal with this emerging field of research, which was not covered by other scientific disciplines at that time. The committee is now the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), the only international organization in the field of space science and the promoter of exchanges of scientific data among otherwise competing nations. In the early years of space exploration, a race was unfolding between the United States and the Soviet Union, both interested in leading the advancement in space and being the first to achieve success in increasingly ambitious challenges. Although most of the efforts were aimed at space technologies, mainly linked to access to space and manned flights in orbit, understanding the space environment was undoubtedly necessary. Consequently, both countries made their best efforts to carry particle and magnetic field detectors, as well as other payloads on board most of their missions for the in-situ study of space. As a result, large amounts of measurements of the space environment were obtained, leading to important discoveries such as the radiation belts. A new discipline emerged with the goal of studying this novel information, which was considered the core of space research and was referred to as space physics or space plasma physics. In the following decades, the study of plasma and its motions in the Earth’s environment gradually expanded to encompass the entire interplanetary space. It now covers the study of regions from the upper atmosphere of the Sun to the boundary of the solar system, including the plasma environment around bodies such as planets and moons. With a preliminary understanding of the space environment, the opportunity to conduct research from outerspace was initiated. In addition to in-situ measurements, space provides an excellent platform to observe the stars, and spacecraft were used then to engage in astronomical research. The advantage of space platforms for astronomy is evident. The atmospheric perturbations affecting light from the universe could be easily eliminated from above, providing a new window to observe the universe. The Earth’s atmosphere blocks light from reaching the surface in specific wavelength ranges, primarily acting as a barrier to high-energy electromagnetic waves in the ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray domains. Additionally, there are disruptions in the infrared spectrum. The ionosphere also impacts observations in very low radio energy ban